47 pages • 1 hour read
The Tell-Tale Brain
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Background
Scientific-Historical Context: Neuroscience and Brain Research
Humans have been fascinated with trying to explain the human mind and brain since antiquity. Many of these theories were wrong, since early civilizations lacked the tools to study the brain. For example, early views thought cranial stuffing served as the primary function of the brain. Ancient Egyptians also believed the heart, rather than the brain, was the seat of intelligence, which is why they removed the brain but not the heart during mummification. Ancient Greeks, including the Greek philosopher Aristotle, tried to understand the function of the brain and neural disorders. Aristotle believed the brain’s primary purpose was to cool blood in the human body.
Researchers only began to make key discoveries about the brain starting in the 19th century. French physician and anatomist Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880) discovered that different regions of the brain housed different functions. Broca’s area, named in his honor, is one example. It controls speech. Other researchers measured how fast nerve cells produced electrical impulses and examined what neurons looked like using salt.
Ramachandran laments the slow progress brain research has made compared to other hard sciences. He notes that during the 20th century, neuroscience only had two theories to explain human behavior. Freudianism, first proposed by Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), represents the first. Freud believed the interplay of id, ego, and superego created human mental life. Id is the unconscious instinctual and primitive part of the mind that is the source of bodily wants and needs and emotional desires, especially sexual drive and aggression. Ego is the conscious part of the mind. Superego comprises norms and ideals acquired through social norms and education. Behaviorism represents the second theory. It proposed that environmental stimuli shape human and animal behaviors. Throughout The Tell-Tale Brain, Ramachandran uses scientific evidence to dispel many Freudian and behaviorist beliefs about the nature of the human mind.
According to Ramachandran, neuroscience, which is the study of the nervous system, only began to flourish within the last few decades. The advent of neuroimaging helped the field make significant advances. Neuroimaging is a branch of medical imaging that focuses on the brain. Neuroimaging enables researchers to assess brain health, diagnose disease, understand how the brain works, and investigate how activities impact the brain. Neuroscientists also study neurological disorders and monitor the activity of neural circuits or single brain cells using electroencephalograms (EEGs) to better understand the human brain. Many neuroscientists specialize in one of these three approaches, but Ramachandran believes a combination of approaches will result in a better understanding of the human brain. This is the approach Ramachandran uses in his own work.
While neuroscientists have discovered only a slither of what there is to know about the brain, these advances have enabled us to better understand the structure, evolution, and behavior and cognitive functions of the brain. Researchers also have a better idea of what makes humans unique compared to other primates, such as the concept of self, language, and creativity (which Ramachandran explores in his book).
Literary Context: Popular Science Writing
The primary goal of popular science writing is to demystify scientific research and make it accessible to a broad audience. This genre employs several key elements, which Ramachandran uses in his work. The first is to have a catchy title. Ramachandran’s title, The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist’s Quest for What Makes Us Human, is meant to appeal to a general audience instead of a specialized one. The title also explains the primary goal of the book: to reveal the secrets of the human brain.
Second, this genre makes science more interesting and lively with several stylistic and rhetorical devices, including by telling stories (especially about people involved in discoveries or experiments), and employing concrete examples, thought experiments, and dialogue. Ramachandran employs many of these devices. For example, he describes the stories of specific people whom he moved from hospitals to his lab to uncover the mysteries surrounding their neurological disorder. As one example, Susan has a condition called synesthesia where she sees numbers in color. Ramachandran suggests synesthesia, especially its link to creativity, carries an evolutionary benefit since it has not been removed from the gene pool.
Another example is the use of dialogue. Ramachandran details several back-and-forth conversations with others throughout the book, such as when he is discussing the case of Dr. Hamdi, who suffered a stroke that impacted his speech and caused paralysis, with a medical student in Chapter 6. Ramachandran includes that he ignored one of the medical student’s skeptical comments. Ramachandran will also pose questions to readers, as if he is having a conversation with them. This method makes it seem as if readers are in the room with Ramachandran, making the overall discussion more approachable and dynamic. Third, popular science also provides entertainment value to readers. Ramachandran attempts to entertain by incorporating humor into his writing.
Fourth, this genre explores ideas overlooked by other researchers or which fall outside of disciplines. Prior to Ramachandran, very few researchers studied neurological disorders to understand healthy brains. In fact, researchers often scoffed at these neurological disorders, suggesting people exaggerated or made up their experience. While Ramachandran does note that this is sometimes the case, he firmly believes that these disorders are the key to unlocking the secrets of the human brain. By discussing his scientific work surrounding these neurological disorders, he helps readers see how these disorders can uncover secrets about the human brain.
While popular science writing is important, it does have limitations. Popular science emphasizes uniqueness and universality, and may include a tone of authority. These elements are missing from scientific literature. Statements in scientific literature are often tentative and include numerous qualifiers. Comparisons between popular science writing and scientific literature reveal that popular science can distort and oversimplify science. One key criticism of Ramachandran’s work is that his tone of authority makes it difficult for lay readers to know when he discusses solid, peer-reviewed science or his own speculations.
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